Abstract
This chapter discusses the roots and meaning of the word “technology” and how technology can be defined, classified, and described in a rigorous way. We all think we know what technology is from personal experience, and yet it is a multifaceted concept that requires some reflection. We introduce Object Process Methodology (OPM) as a way to model technologies and introduce a functional 3 × 3 grid and later an expanded 5 × 5 grid as the basis for a taxonomy of technology. Finally, this chapter describes the major functions of technology management and how they relate to each other and underpin most research and development (R&D) organizations.
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Notes
- 1.
Exercises are interspersed in each chapter to challenge the reader and help them explore more deeply their own mental models about key terms or concepts related to technology. However, readers may skip these exercises without loss of information or coherence.
- 2.
Etymology is the science of the origins of words in human natural language.
- 3.
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology, URL accessed June 30, 2020.
- 4.
We will argue below that the deliberate creation of technology is a key element of understanding what it is. This means that objects and processes that occur spontaneously in nature, without the active involvement of an agent, are not “technology” as we understand it. Chap. 3 discusses the link of nature with technology in depth.
- 5.
The reason we ask about art here is that in education the paradigm of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) has become very prevalent, and is sometimes augmented as STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics) to emphasize the importance of creativity.
- 6.
We celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission in 2019. MIT’s Instrumentation Laboratory under Charles “Doc” Draper developed the guidance and navigation system for Apollo.
- 7.
Some argue that Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the basis for a twenty-first-century technological revolution, but the roots of AI can in fact be traced back to the mid-twentieth century and are therefore not fundamentally new. This is not meant to diminish the tremendous impact that AI already has on many products and services, and society at large.
- 8.
Chapter 18 will focus on the technological evolution of DNA sequencing.
- 9.
When we say “man-made” we refer to inventors of all genders. The key distinction, which we probe deeper in Chap. 3, is that these products, systems, and services would not occur spontaneously in nature without human intervention or replication. This is also related to the notion of artificiality. We sometimes refer to human-made technology.
- 10.
The aspect of deliberate continual improvement is a key feature of human-originated technology. We view the spontaneously occurring processes of evolution and natural selection in nature as distinct from this, as discussed in Chap. 3 on the relationship of nature and technology. A philosophical argument can be made that since humans (homo sapiens sapiens) are part of nature, that therefore technological evolution driven by humans is in itself simply an extension of natural evolution, including natural selection. The emergence of what has been called the Anthropocene, that is, a new age where human technology shapes our planet at a faster rate than the underlying natural processes that predate the industrial revolution, is generally recognized as new and important. Some of these anthropogenic effects turn out to be potentially undermining our long-term survival as a species on planet Earth.
- 11.
See the source of this definition at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology. There are several points of debate that often come up with regard to a general definition of technology. These are summarized in the discussion point above and we encourage the reader to discuss these questions with a group of peers.
- 12.
This will be explored more deeply in Chap. 3 on technology and nature.
- 13.
It has been shown that homo neanderthalensis (ca. 400,000–40,000 BCE) also used fire, created tools, and was capable of inventing simple technologies. If humans, other animals with highly developed brains, and computers with AI can be potential originators of technology, we cannot preclude the existence of alien technology in or beyond our own solar system. In that case the beneficiary of technology will not be humans.
- 14.
The issues associated with technologies for military and intelligence purposes are explored in Chap. 20, where we cover technologies for offensive and defensive purposes including nuclear weapons and the emergence of cybersecurity-related technologies.
- 15.
According to Brain lateralization, language processing is often dominant in the left hemisphere.
- 16.
Eventually, humanity may become a multi-planetary species which may require expansion of these considerations. For the moment we focus mainly, but not exclusively, on technology located here on Earth.
- 17.
The adoption and diffusion of new technology in agriculture will be discussed in Chap. 7.
- 18.
Readers can simply sketch the example by hand or on a computer. Later, we will use Object Process Cloud (OPCLOUD) to create such models. Anyone can quickly generate a model using the OPM Sandbox at: https://sandbox.opm.technion.ac.il/ Note that models cannot be saved, but screenshots can be captured.
- 19.
Chapter 15 is dedicated to the topic of knowledge management and technology transfer.
- 20.
This richness of human natural language is a big part of the beauty and inspiration of literary genres such as poetry. In science and engineering, however, the language needs to be limited and standardized in order to avoid unnecessary ambiguity.
- 21.
Quantum technologies for computing, timekeeping, encryption, etc. have recently emerged and are at an early stage of maturity. Currently, OPM assumes that an object can only be in one state at a given point in time and we have not yet attempted to model quantum technologies using OPM, which does not mean that it cannot be done.
- 22.
Readers who are interested in further details are encouraged to consult (Dori 2011) and ISO standard 19450: https://www.iso.org/standard/62274.html
- 23.
In physics, there are deep connections and equivalencies between mass and energy, for example, Einstein’s famous E = mc2, as well as Claude Shannon’s information theory which quantifies fundamental limits to information transport in terms of the maximum data rate Rmax, based on the bandwidth B and signal-to-noise ratio C/N that is available, Rmax = B log2(1 + C/N). It may be possible to collapse all technological operands into an energy equivalence, but we do not attempt this here, as this may force us to operate at a higher level of abstraction than is useful.
- 24.
Some argue that living organisms can simply be classified as “matter,” but we disagree, as the requirements and value we place on life warrant a separate category.
- 25.
The primary organization we have in mind is a for-profit firm that develops, implements, and sells products and services that address societal and specific customer needs and that receives revenues in return. A portion of these is then reinvested to fund the development of new or improved technologies, products, and services. The framework can also be applied to nonprofit organizations such as government agencies, research institutes, or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that focus on missions.
- 26.
The use of figures of merit (FOM) is central in our approach to technology management.
- 27.
Some firms, particularly in Europe, make a distinction between R&T (research and technology development) and R&D (research and product development). However, this is not the case in most parts of the world where research, technology maturation, prototyping and the development and launch of new products, services, and missions are all considered to be part of R&D.
- 28.
Many competitors attempt to prevent this by inserting so-called noncompete clauses in their employment contracts. These are generally difficult, but not impossible, to enforce in a court of law.
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Appendix
Appendix
Object process language (OPL) model of refrigerator, see Fig. 1.5.
SD
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Refrigerator is physical and systemic.
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Thermostat Setting of Refrigerator is physical and systemic.
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Food is physical and systemic.
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Shelf Life of Food is physical and systemic.
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Human is physical and systemic.
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Temperature of Food is physical and systemic.
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Electrical Energy is physical and environmental.
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Waste Heat is physical and systemic.
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Exterior Air is physical and environmental.
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Refrigerator exhibits Thermostat Setting.
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Food exhibits Shelf Life and Temperature.
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Operating is physical and systemic.
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Operating requires Refrigerator.
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Operating affects Food.
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Operating consumes Electrical Energy.
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Operating yields Waste Heat.
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Setting is physical and systemic.
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Human handles Setting.
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Setting affects Thermostat Setting of Refrigerator.
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Convecting is physical and environmental.
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Convecting affects Exterior Air.
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Convecting consumes Waste Heat.
SD1 (In-Zooming on “Operating”)
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Operating from SD zooms in SD1 into Condensing, Expanding, Evaporating, Compressing, and Regulating, as well as Coolant.
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Refrigerator is physical and systemic.
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Food is physical and systemic.
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Electrical Energy is physical and environmental.
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Waste Heat is physical and systemic.
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Compressor is physical and systemic.
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Pump is physical and systemic.
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Condenser is physical and systemic.
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Expansion Valve is physical and systemic.
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Evaporator is physical and systemic.
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Thermostat is physical and systemic.
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Coolant is physical and systemic.
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Refrigerator consists of Compressor, Condenser, Evaporator, Expansion Valve, Pump, and Thermostat.
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Operating is physical and systemic.
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Operating requires Refrigerator.
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Compressing is physical and systemic.
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Compressing requires Compressor and Pump.
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Compressing affects Coolant.
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Compressing consumes Electrical Energy.
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Compressing invokes Condensing.
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Regulating is physical and systemic.
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Regulating requires Thermostat.
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Regulating invokes Compressing.
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Condensing is physical and systemic.
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Condensing requires Condenser.
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Condensing affects Coolant.
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Condensing yields Waste Heat.
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Condensing invokes Expanding.
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Evaporating is physical and systemic.
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Evaporating requires Evaporator.
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Evaporating affects Coolant and Food.
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Evaporating invokes Regulating.
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Expanding is physical and systemic.
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Expanding requires Expansion Valve.
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Expanding affects Coolant.
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Expanding invokes Evaporating.
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de Weck, O.L. (2022). What Is Technology?. In: Technology Roadmapping and Development . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88346-1_1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88346-1_1
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