Abstract
This chapter discusses the relationship between nature and technology. We argue that technology – as we have defined it – is not unique to humans but that examples of technology can be found in nature. Next, we review the concepts of bio-inspired design and biomimetics which are the application of biological principles to artificially created technology. Increasingly, with the emergence of biological engineering, we are starting to understand (or are rediscovering) how nature itself can become technology. Finally, we consider the emerging notion of “cyborgs,” which are humans that have inserted technology into their own bodies or are using technology to modify their own bodies. These possibilities have given rise to the new field of bioethics. We can increasingly modify or create biology-based systems and technologies, but should we? Since humans are biology-based animals and are part of nature, some argue that all technology is inherently “natural.”
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Notes
- 1.
The beaver was chosen as MIT’s mascot in 1914 and was later named “TIM” (MIT read backward). The main reason is that the beaver is often considered “nature’s engineer,” see “Tim the Beaver Mascot History.” MIT Division of Student Life. 1998.
- 2.
When beavers were introduced in Tierra del Fuego (Argentina), it was found that they had no natural predators, but that they still build dams and habitats as they do in Northern latitudes.
- 3.
- 4.
We discuss ways to measure technological progress in Chap. 4.
- 5.
- 6.
Speculation on how human-generated technology may evolve is the subject of Chap. 22.
- 7.
There are subtle differences between these terms which have been introduced in the literature starting in the 1950s with bionics (Steele, 1950s), biomimetics (Schmitt, 1950s), and then bio-inspired design (French, 1988) often used as synonyms. Here, however, we draw some distinctions that will be important in practice. Biomimetics is the direct application of biological functions, and imitation of form and behavior in design. The resulting design may look very similar to its natural analog. Bio-inspired design on the other hand is the indirect application of natural principles that have been distilled at a higher level of abstraction. Since the 1974–1978 TV series “The Six Million Dollar Man” the term bionics has been associated with artificial technology used in cyborgs. Biomimicry is essentially synonymous with Biomimetics.
- 8.
A successful commercial application of plants is aloe vera, which grows mainly in dry climates.
- 9.
The importance of the human skin is often underappreciated. It enables at least three major functions in our bodies such as protecting, sensing, and regulating (temperature). It is the largest organ of the integumentary system.
- 10.
The company calls this “bionic” design, but it is in fact biologically inspired design using the definitions we provided above. A bionic design – in the more recent interpretation of the term – would be the insertion of artificial components into a natural system, see discussion on cyborgs in Sect. 3.4 and the earlier definitions in this chapter.
- 11.
Source: https://www.autodesk.com/customer-stories/airbus Note that here [g] refers to acceleration in units of [9.81 m/s2] and not weight in grams.
- 12.
Susan Hockfield served as MIT’s 16th President from 2004 to 2012 and launched two major new initiatives on the life sciences and energy during her tenure.
- 13.
See further details: https://news.mit.edu/2013/turning-bacteria-chemical-factories
- 14.
Even a concept as complex as the aerodynamic airfoil can be found in nature. For example, the seed of the fruit Alsomitra macrocarpa produces an airfoil of about 13 [cm] in wingspan that allows it to travel over great distances.
- 15.
Darwin did not get everything right. For example, while he subscribed to the view that Earth is older than the 6000 years described in the Bible, he believed it would be around 100 million years old. Today, we know that Earth is about 4.5 billion years old, about a third of the lifetime of the known universe (13.8 billion years). The Cambrian Explosion which is at the root of most of the diversity of animal and plant life we observe on our planet today occurred about 540 [mya].
- 16.
This surface area would not necessarily be completely contiguous and would not require relocating major populations. However, it would expand and protect major existing wildlife sanctuaries and would collectively make up about half of the Earth’s surface including the land and the oceans, thus about 50% of 510 million [km2]. This proposal may also mitigate climate change.
- 17.
In order to qualify as a cyborg a creature may not necessarily be made up of exactly 50% natural and 50% artificial components. We may think of this as more of a continuous spectrum where on the one end we have 100% humans with no artificial components whatsoever and on the other hand “pure” robots with no biological or human features and 100% abiotic components. Increasingly, we observe and create instances along the spectrum such as humans with artificial implants (e.g., titanium hip joints or artificial retinas), or robots that learn from humans and are trained to behave like humans (e.g., see Nikolaidis and Shah 2013).
- 18.
The development of the artificial heart goes back several decades with the first successful artificial heart implant in 1982 (the Jarvik-7).
- 19.
Between 1989 and December 2018, over 2900 clinical trials were conducted in gene therapy worldwide. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy
- 20.
We discuss the link between technology and aging in Chap. 21.
- 21.
In the United States, such technologies have to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Medical Devices in the United States are classified as Class I, II, or III, with class III being those that carry the highest risk for patient safety should they malfunction.
- 22.
A recent movement called “biohacking” involves individuals (usually those with technological knowledge and disposable incomes) using biological technology to “improve” their own bodies, including their brains, for improved performance and well-being. Some of these efforts are taking place outside of the medical and scientific establishment and may carry significant risks.
- 23.
Both evolution and migration had and continue to have an important role to play. A surprising fact that was discovered by paleontologists is that the camel originated in North America about 45 [mya] during the Pleistocene and subsequently migrated across the Bering strait to Eurasia (Donlan 2005).
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de Weck, O.L. (2022). Nature and Technology. In: Technology Roadmapping and Development . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88346-1_3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88346-1_3
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